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BIOLOGICAL CONTROL IN TROPICAL

 

& SUBTROPICAL ORCHARDS

(Contacts)

          Crops in this category include coconut, oil palms, macadamia, avocado, banana, pineapple, citrus, coffee, cocoa, guavas and passion fruit, almonds and olives. Principal pests are fruit flies, scale insects, psyllids and fruit piercing and scavenger moths (Bennett et al. 1976).

          Many tropical and subtropical crops are raised successfully in temperate climates of California South Africa, Australia and the Mediterranean where winter temperatures are moderate, and tropical pests that have moved with these crops often do not pose as severe a threat as in their places of origin. However, several species can become problematic at time, and some temperature zone pests have moved over to tropical plants when the latter appear in their territory. Citrus of all the tropical crops has been most successfully adapted to temperate regions where the added stress of winter even stimulates fruit production. Avocados because of the origins of several species at high elevations in the Neotropics are also adapted to temperate climates. However, the latter sustain comparably fewer pest species than citrus in such areas. Almonds have sustained invasions of damaging proportions on a few occasions, with notable pests being navel orangeworm and peach twig borer. The references in this section stress work performed on crops in and for tropical regions of the world below 24° Lat., while greater detail on tropical crops in temperate regions may be found in the Case History, Coccidae and regional sections especially.

Please see Navel Orangeworm and Citrus Psyllid Citrus Psyllid for detailed example.

 

REFERENCES:         [Additional references may be found at  MELVYL Library ]

Anonymous. 1971. A big bet on biological control. Citrograph 56: 315-16, 327.

Annecke, D. P. 1969. Recent developments in biological and integrated control of citrus pests in South Africa. Proc. 1st Int. Citrus Symp. Riverside, Calif. 2: 849-54.

Annecke, D. P. & M. J. Mynhardt. 1972. The species of the insidiosus group of Metaphycus Mercet in South Africa with notes on some extralimital species (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 85: 227-74.

Argov, Y. & Y. Rössler. 1988. Introduction of berneficial insects into Israel for the control of insect pests. Phytoparasitica 16: 303-15.

Argyriou, L. C. 1963. Studies on the morphology and biology of the black scale [Saissetia oleae (Bernard)] in Greece. Ann. Inst. Phytopath. Benaki, N.S. 5: 353-77.

Argyriou, L. C. 1974. Data on the biological control of citrus scales in Greece. Bull. SROP 1974/3: 89-94.

Argyriou, L. C. 1984. Present status of parasite complex in olive groves in Greece, p. 177-78. In: R. Vavalloro & A. Piavaux (eds.), C.E C. Programme on Integrated and Biological Control. Final Report 1979/83. Comm. European Comm., Directorat, Luxembourg.

Argyriou, L. C. & P. DeBach. 1968. The establishment of Metaphycus helvolus (Compere) (Hymenoptera: Encytidae) on Saissetia oleae (Bern.) (Homoptera: Coccidae) in olive groves in Greece. Entomophaga 13: 223-28.

Awibowo, R. 1934. Der Klapperbladkever, Brontispa froggatti var. celebensis, ein zijn biologische bestrijding op Celebes (Voorloopige mededeeling). Landbouw. Buitenz. 10: 76-92.

Baranowski, R. M. & R. W. Swanson. 1971. The utilization of Parachasma cereum (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) as a means of suppression Anastrepha suspensa (Diptera: Tephritidae) populations. Proc. Tall Timbers Conf. Ecol. Anim. Contr. Habitat Managem. 3: 249-52.

Bartlett, B. R. 1960. Biological races of the black scale, Saissetia oleae, and their specific parasites. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 53: 383-85.

Bartlett, B. R. 1963. The contact toxicity of some pesticide residues to hymenopterous parasites and coccinellid predators. J. Econ. Ent. 56: 694-98.

Bartlett, B. R. 1969. The biological control campaigns against soft scales and mealybugs on citrus in California. Proc. 1st Int. Citrus Symp., Riverside, Calif. 2: 875-78.

Bartlett, B. R. 1978. Coccidae. In: C. P. Clausen (ed.), Introduced Parasites and Predators of Arthropod Pests and Weeds. U. S. Dept. Agric. Agric. Handbk. No. 480, Washington, D.C. 545 p.

Bartlett, B. R. & C. F. Lagace. 1961. A new biological race of Microterys flavus introduced into California for the control of lecaniine coccids, with an analysis of its behavior in host selection. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 54: 222-27.

Bartlett, B. R. & D. C. Lloyd. 1958. Mealybugs attacking citrus in California-- a survey of their natural enemies and the release of new parasites and predators. J. Econ. Ent. 51: 90-3.

Bartlett, B. R. & R. A. Medved. 1966. The biology and effectiveness of Diversinervus elegans (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), an imported parasite of lecaniine scale insects in California. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 59: 974-76.

Bartlett, K. A. 1939. Introduction and colonization of two parasites of the pineapple mealybug. Univ. Puerto Rico J. Agr. 23: 67-72.

Bartlett, K. A. 1941. The introduction and colonization in Puerto Rico of beneficial insects parasitic on West Indian fruit flies. Univ. Puerto Rico J. Agr. 25: 25-31.

Barzman, M. S., K. M. Daane & L. E. Caltagirone. 1990. Distribution of progeny in Metaphycus zebratus, a parasitoid of black scale. 74th Ann. Meet., Pacific Br. Ent. Soc. Amer., Spokane, WA.

Beardsley, J. W., Jr. 1969. The Anagyrina of the Hawaiian Islands (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) with descriptions of two new species. Proc. Hawaii. Ent. Soc. 20: 287-310.

Bedford, E. C. G. 1968. The biological control of red scale, Aonidiella aurantii (Mask.), on citrus in South Africa. J. Ent. Soc. S. Afr. 31: 1-15.

Bedford, E. C. G. 1973. Citrus scale insects biological control proves successful. Citrus SubTrop. Fruit J., Feb., 1973. p. 5-17.

Bedford, E. C. G. & E. D. Thomas. 1965. Biological control of the citrus blackfly, Aleurocanthus woglumi (Ashby) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) in South Africa. J. Ent. Soc. S. Afr. 28: 117-32.

Bedford, G. O. 1971. Virus release programme in Fiji. Report of the Project Manager for the Period June 1970 - May 1971, p. 234-39. [UNDP(SF)/SPC project for research on the control of the coconut palm rhinoceros beetle.] South Pacific Comm., Noumea, New Caledonia.

Beingolea, G. O. 1956. Estatus actual de la plaga de la quereza negra del olivo (Saissetia oleae Bern.) en los valles de Yauca e Ilo. Bol. Trimest. Extp. Agropecuarias (1955) 4: 18-22.

Beingolea, G. O. 1969. Biological control of citrus pests in Peru. 1st Int. Citrus Symp. Riverside, Calif. 2: 827-38.

Bellows, T. S., Jr. & T. W. Fisher, (eds) 1999. Handbook of Biological Control: Principles and Applications. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.  1046 p.

Bellows, T. S., Jr. & J. G. Morse. 1988. Residual toxicity following dilute or low-volume applications of insecticides used for control of California red scale (Homoptera: Diaspididae) to four beneficial species in a citrus agroecosystem. J. Econ. Ent. 81: 892-98.

Benassy, C. 1969. The biological control against coccids of citrus in the country of the French zone. Proc. 1st Int. Citrus Symp. Riverside, Calif. 2: 793-99.

Bennett, F. D. 1971. Some recent successes in the field of biological control in the West Indies. Rev. Peru. Ent. 14: 369-73.

Bennett, F. D. & I. W. Hughes. 1959. Biological control of insect pests in Bermuda. Bull. Ent. Res. 50: 423-36.

Bennett, F. D., D. Rosen, P. Cochereau & B. J. Wood. 1976. Biological control of pests of tropical fruits and nuts, p. 359-95. In: C. B. Huffaker & P. S. Messenger (eds.), Theory and Practice of Biological Control. Academic Press, New York, San Francisco, London. 788 p.

Berry, N. O. 1955. Mexican fruit fly and citrus blackfly control in Mexico. J. Econ. Ent. 48: 414-16.

Bess, H. A. 1964. Populations of the leaf-miner Leucoptera meyricki and its parasites in sprayed and unsprayed coffee in Kenya. Bull. Ent. Res. 55: 59-82.

Blumberg, D. & E. Swirski. 1982. Comparative studies of the development of two species of Metaphycus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), introduced into Israel for the control of the Mediterranean black scale, Saissetia oleae (Olivier) (Homoptera: Coccidae). Acta Oecol. Oecol. Appl. 3: 281-86.

Blumberg, D. & E. Swirski. 1988. Colonization of Metaphycus spp. (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) for control of the Mediterranean black scale, Saissetia oleae (Olivier) (Homoptera: Coccidae), in Israel, p. 1209-13. In: R. Gore & K. Mendel (eds.), Proc. 6th Internatl. Citrus Cong., Tel-Aviv, Israel, Mar. 6-11, 1988. Balaban Publ., Philadelphia.

Bodenheimer, F. S. 1951. Citrus Entomology int he Middle East. W. Junk Publ., The Hague. 663 p.

Bou…ek, Z. 1988. Australasian Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera): a biosystematic revision of genera of fourteen families with a reclassification of species. C.A.B. Internatl., Oxon. p. 351.

Bromberger, D., K. M. Daane & L. E. Caltagirone. 1990. Use of black scale host plants to increase parasite activity in olive orchards. Calif. Olive Comm., Ann. Crop Rept. 1989.

Brown, E. S. 1959a. Immature nutfall of coconuts in the Solomon Islands. I. Distribution of nutfall in relation to that of Amblypelta and of certain species of ants. Bull. Ent. Res. 50: 97-133.

Brown, E. S. 1959b. Immature nutfall of coconuts in the Solomon Islands. II. Changes in ant populations, and their relation to vegetation. Bull. Ent. Res. 50: 523-58.

Bustillo, A. E. & A. T. Drooz. 1977. Comparative establishment of a Virginia (USA) strain of Telenomus alsophilae on Oxydia trychiata in Colombia. J. Econ. Ent. 70: 767-70.

Caballero, C. F.f 1951. Notas biológicas y económicas sobre la conchuela negra (Saissetia oleae). Agric. Tec. (Santiago, Chile) 11: 54-63.

Callan, E. McC. 1943. Natural enemies of cacao thrips. Bull. Ent. Res. 34: 313-21.

Caltagirone, L. 1957. Insectos entomófagos y sus huéspedes anotados para Chile. Agr. Tec. (Santiago de Chile) 17: 16-48.

Carter, W. 1937. Importation and laboratory breeding of two chalcid parasites of Pseudococcus brevipes (Ckll.). J. Econ. Ent. 30: 370-72.

Clausen, C. P. 1956a. Biological Control of Insect Pests in the Continental United States. U. S. Dept. Agric. Tech. Bull. No. 1139. 151 p.

Clausen, C. P. 1956b. Biological control of fruit flies. J. Econ. Ent. 49: 176-78.

Clausen, C. P. & P. A. berry. 1932. The citrus blackfly in Asia, and the importation of its natural enemies into tropical America. U. S. Dep. Agr. Bull. 320.

Clausen, C. P., D. W. Clancy & Q. C. Chock. 1965. Biological control of the Oriental fruit fly (Dacus dorsalis Hendel) and other fruit flies in Hawaii. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 1322.

Cochereau, P. 1969. Installation de Tetrastichus brontispae Ferr. (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), parasite de Brontispa longissima Gestro, var. froggatti Sharp (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Hispinae) dans la presqu'lle de Noumea. Cah. ORSTOM Ser. Biol. 7: 139-41.

Cochereau, P. 1970a. Recherches aux Nouvelles-Hébrides de Pleurotropis parvulus Ferr. (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), parasite de Promecotheca pulchellus Gestro (Coleoptera: Hispinae), et expéditions sur la Cote d'Ivoire. Nouméa, N. Caledonia, Off. Rech. Sci. Tech. Outre Mer. (Multigr.).

Cochereau, P. 1970b. Les mouches des fruits et leurs parasites dans la zone indo-australopacifique et particulierement en Nouvelle-Caledonie. Cah. ORSTOM Ser. Biol. 12: 15-50.

Cochereau, P. 1976. Biologie et dynamique des populations, en Nouvelle-Calédonie, d'un papillon piqueur de fruits: Othreis fullonia Clerck (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae, Catocalinae). Mem. ORSTOM, Paris. 258 p.

Compere, H. 1939. The insect enemies of the black scale, Saissetia oleae (Bern.) in South America. Calif. Univ. Publ. Ent. 7: 75-90.

Compere, H. 1940. Parasites of the black scale, Saissetia oleae (Bernard), in Africa. Hilgardia 13: 387-425.

Conway, G. R. & B. J. Wood. 1964. Pesticide chemicals-- help or hindrance in Malaysian agriculture. Malaysian Nature J. 18: 111-19.

Coulsen, J. R., A. Carrell & D. L. Vincent. 1988. Releases of beneficial organisms in the United States and territories, 1981. U.S. Dept. Agr. Agr. Res. Serv. Misc. Publ. 1464.

Dahlsten, D. L. & N. J. Mills. 1996. Biological Control of Forest Insects. In: Principles and Application of Biological Control. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. (in press).

Daane, K. M. 1990. Commercial use of natural enemies: an overview of the issues. XXIV Ann. Conf., Assoc. Appl. Insect Ecol., Pleasanton, CA.

Daane, K. M. & L. E. Caltagirone. 1989. Biological control of black scale in olives. Calif. Agr. 1989: 9-11.

Daane, K. M., D. Bromberger & L. E. Caltagirone. 1990. Improving biological control of black scale, Saissetia oleae, in California olive orchards. Statewide UCIPM Project, Progress Rept., 1990.

Daane, K. M., C. E. Kennet, L. E. Caltagirone & M. S. Barzman. 1992. Black scale, Saissetia oleae (Olivier) (Homoptera: Coccidae) . In: J. W. Beardsley & G. Jackson (eds.), Case History of Biological Control of Arthropod Pests in Western United States. (in press).

Daane, K. M., M. S. Barzman, C. E. Kennett & L. E. Caltagirone. 1992. Establishment in California olive orchards of Prococcophagus probus and Coccophagus rusti (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), parasites of black scale, Saissetia oleae (Homoptera: Coccidae). Pan-Pacific Ent. (in press).

Davis, C. J. 1964. The introduction, propagation, liberation and establishment of parasites to control Nezara viridula var. smaragdula (Fabricius) in Hawaii. Proc. Hawaii. Ent. Soc. 18: 369-75.

Davis, C. J. 1967. Progress in the biological control of the southern stink bug Nezara viridula var. smaragdula (Fabricius) in Hawaii (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). Mushi Suppl. 39: 9-16.

Davis, C. J. & M. Chong. 1968. Recent introductions for biological control in Hawaii. XIII. Proc. Hawaii. Ent. Soc. 20: 25-34.

Davis, C. J. & N. L. H. Krauss. 1966. Recent introductions for biological control in Hawaii. XI. Proc. Hawaii. Ent. Soc. 19: 201-07.

DeBach, P. 1943. The importance of host feeding by adult parasites in the reduction of host populations. J. Econ. Ent. 36: 647-58.

DeBach, P. 1964a. The scope of biological control, p. 3-20. In: DeBach, P. (ed.), Biological Control of Insect Pests and Weeds. Reinhold, New York. 844 p.

DeBach, P. 1964b. Successes, trends, and future possibilities, p. 673-713. In: DeBach, P. (ed.), Biological Control of Insect Pests and Weeds. Reinhold, New York. 844 p.

DeBach, P. 1969. Biological control of diaspine scale insects on citrus in California. Proc. 1st Int. Citrus Symp. Riverside, Calif. 2: 801-15.

DeBach, P. 1971. Fortuitous biological control from ecesis of natural enemies, p. 293-301. In: Entomological Essays to Commemorate the Retirement of Professor K. Yasumatsu. Hokuryukan, Tokyo.

DeBach, P. & L. C. Argyriou. 1967. The colonization and success in Greece of some imported Aphytis spp. (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) parasitic on citrus scale insects (Homoptera: Diaspididae). Entomophaga 12: 325-42.

DeBach, P. & B. R. Bartlett. 1951. Effects of insecticides on biological control of insect pests of citrus. J. Econ. Ent. 44: 372-83.

DeBach, P. & K. S. Hagen. 1964. Manipulation of entomophagous species, p. 429-58. In: DeBach, P. (ed.), Biological Control of Insect Pests and Weeds. Reinhold, New York. 844 p.

DeBach, P. & J. Landi. 1961. The introduced purple scale parasite, Aphytis lepidosaphes Compere, and a method of integrating chemical with biological control. Hilgardia 31: 459-97.

DeBach, P. & R. A. Sundby. 1963. Competitive displacement between ecological homologues. Hilgardia 34: 105-66.

DeBach, P. & S. C. Warner. 1969. Research on biological control of whiteflies. Citrograph 54: 301-03.

DeBach, P., E. J. Dietrick, C. A. Fleschner & T. W. Fisher. 1950. Periodic colonization of Aphytis for control of the California red scale. Preliminary tests, 1949. J. Econ. Ent. 43: 783-802.

DeBach, P., D. Rosen & C. E. Kennett. 1971. Biological control of coccids by introduced natural enemies, p. 165-94. In: C. B. Huffaker (ed.), Biological Control. Plenum Press, New York.

de Crouzel, I. S. 1971. Studies on the biological control of diaspidid scales on citrus in Argentina. Proc. 12th Pac. Sci. Contr. Canberra 1: 200.

De Lotto, G. 1971a. The authorship of the Mediterranean black scale (Homoptera: Coccidae). J. Ent. B40: 149-50.

De Lotto, G. 1971b. A preliminary note on the black scales (Homoptera: Coccidae) of North and Central America. Bull. Ent. Res. 61: 325-26.

DeLotto, G. 1976. On the black scales of southern Europe (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae). J. Ent. Soc. So. Africa 39: 147-49.

Doutt, R. L. 1950. Field studies on the parasites of Brontispa mariana Spaeth. Proc. Hawaii. Ent. Soc. 14: 55-8.

Doutt, R. L. 1964. The historical development of biological control, p. 21-42. In: DeBach, P. (ed.), Biological Control of Insect Pests and Weeds. Reinhold, New York. 844 p.

Drooz, A. T., A. E. Bustillo, G. F. Fedde and V. H. Fedde. 1977. North American egg parasite successfully controls a different host genus in South America. Science 197: 390-91.

Dun, G. S. 1955. Economic entomology in Papua and New Guinea 1948-1954. Papua New Guinea Agr. J. 9(3): 109-19.

Duran, M. 1944. Un enemigo natural de la Saissetia oleae (Bern.) nuevo para Chile. Agr. Tec. 4: 255-56. Lamport Gilbert & Co., Ltd., Reading, England. 102 p.

Duran, M. & R. Cortes. 1941. La conchuela negra del olivo, Saissetia oleae Bern., en Chile. Boll. Dep. Sanid. Veg. 1(2): 37-47.

Ebeling, W. 1959. Subtropical Fruit Pests. Univ. Calif. Div. Agr. Sci. 436 p.

Essig, E. O. 1931. A History of Entomology. The Macmillan Co., New York. 1029 p.

Etienne, J. 1969. Lutte contre les mouches des fruits. Rapp. Inst. Rech. Agron. Trop. Reunion. p. 251-59.

Fedde, G. F., V. H. Fedde & A. T. Drooz. 1979. Biological control prospects of an egg parasite, Telenomus alsophilae Viereck, p. 123-27. In: Current Topics in Forest Entomology. Selected papers from XV Intern. Cong. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agric. For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rept. WO-8. 174 p.

Fennah, R. G. 1942. The citrus pests investigation in the Windward and Leeward Islands, British West Indies, 1937-1942. Imp. Coll. Trop. Agr. Trinidad. 66 p.

Fernando, H. E. 1972. Concluding Report on Control of P. cumingi, The Introduced Pest of Coconuts. Central Agr. Res. Inst., Dep. Agr. Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. 14 p.

Flanders, S. E. 1939. A black scale parasite with promising qualities. J. Econ. Ent. 32: 152.

Flanders, S. E. 1942. Metaphycus helvolus, an encyrtid parasite of the black scale. J. Econ. Ent. 35: 690-98.

Flanders, S. E. 1943a. Indirect hyperparasitization and observations on three species of indirect hyperparasites. J. Econ. Ent. 36: 921-26.

Flanders, S. E. 1943b. The Argentine ant versus the parasites of the black scale. Calif. Citrogr. 28: 117, 128, 137.

Flanders, S. E. 1953. Variations in susceptibility of citrus-infesting coccids to parasitization. J. Econ. Ent. 46: 266-69.

Flanders, S. E. 1958. Moranila californica as a usurped parasite of Saissetia oleae. J. Econ. Ent. 51: 247-48.

Flanders, S. E. 1959. Differential host relations of the sexes in parasitic Hymenoptera. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 3: 125-42.

Fleschner, C. A. 1954. Biological control of avocado pests. Calif. Avocado Soc. Yearb. 38: 125-29.

Gardner, T. R. 1958. Biological control of insect and plant pests in the Trust Territory and Guam. Proc. 10th Int. Congr. Ent. Montreal 4: 465-69.

Gater, B. A. R. 1925. Some observations on the Malaysian coconut zygaenid (Artona catoxantha Hamps.). Malaysian Agr. J. 13: 92-115.

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Gonzalez, R. H. & S. Rojas. 1966. Estudio analítico del control biológico de plagas agrícolas en Chile. Agr. Tec. (Santiago de Chile) 26: 133-47.

Graebner, L., D. S. Moreno & J. L. Baritelle. 1984. The Fillmore Citrus Protective District: A success story in integrated pest management. Bull. Ent. Soc. Amer. 30: 27-33.

Graf Marin, A. & R. Cortes Peña. 1939. The introduction of parasites into Chile against insect pests: a summary of the importations and their results. Proc. 6th Pac. Sci. Congr. 4: 351-57.

Greathead, D. J. 1972. A review of biological control in the Ethiopian region. Commonw. Inst. Biol. Contr. Tech. Commun. 5.

Greathead, D. J. 1976. A review of biological control in western and southern Europe. Tech. Comm. No. 7, CIBC. Commonw. Agr. Bur., Farnham Royal, Slough, England. 182 p.

Greenslade, P. J. M. 1971. Interspecific competition and frequency changes among ants in Solomon Islands coconut plantations. J. Appl. Ecol. 8: 323-49.

Gressitt, J. L. 1958. Ecology of Promecotheca papuana Csiki, a coconut beetle. Proc. 10th Int. Congr. Ent. Montreal 2: 747-53.

Gressitt, J. L., S. E. Flanders & B. R. Bartlett. 1954. Parasites of citricola scale in Japan, and their introduction into California. Pan-Pac. Ent. 30: 5-9.

Haramoto, F. H. & H. A. Bess. 1970. Recent studies on the abundance of the Oriental and Mediterranean fruit flies and the status of their parasites. Proc. Hawaii. Ent. Soc. 20: 551-66.

Harpaz, I. & D. Rosen. 1971. Development of integrated control programs for crop pests in Israel, p. 458-68. In: C. B. Huffaker (ed.), Biological Control. Plenum Press, New York.

Hoddle, Mark   <Publications>

Ho Thian Hua, Ahmad bin Baha & Yusof bin Din. 1972. Aerial spraying against Artona catoxantha Hamps. on coconut palms, p. 329-44. In: R. L. Wastie & D. A. Earp (eds.), Cocoa and Coconuts in Malaysia. Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

Hoyt, C. P. & A. Catley. 1966. Current research on the biological control of Oryctes (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Dynastinae). Mushi 39: 3-8.

Huger, A. M. 1966. A virus disease of the Indian rhinoceros beetle Oryctes rhinoceros (L.) caused by a new type of insect virus, Rhabdionvirus oryctes gen. n., sp. n. J. Invertebr. Path. 8: 38-51.

Hutauruk, C. & H. S. Situmorang. 1971. Some notes on the control of the bagworm, Metisa plana Wlk., in North Sumatra, p. 166-72. In: R. L. Wastie & D. A. Earp (eds.), Cocoa and Coconuts in Malaysia. Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

Ibrahim, A. G. & M. J. W. Copland. 1987. Effects of temperature on the reproduction of Saissetia coffeae and its parasitoids. Insect Sci. Appl. 8: 351-53.

Isla, R. 1959. Nota sobre la lucha biólogica contra las plagas agrícolas en Chile. Bol. Fitossanit. 8(3): 3-7.

Jepson, F. P. 1914. A mission to Java in quest of natural enemies for a coleopterous pest of bananas. Bull. Dep. Agr. Fiji 7.

Jimenez-Jimenez, E. 1969. Control biológico de algunas plagas de los cítricos en México. proc. 1st Int. Citrus Symp. Riverside, Calif. 2: 781-84.

Kalshoven, L. G. E. 1950-1951. De plagen van de cultuurgewassen in Indonesia. Two vol. W. van Hoeve, The Hague. 1065 p.

Kennett, C. E. 1980. Occurrence of Metaphycus bartletti Annecke & Mynhardt, a South African parasite of black scale, Saissetia oleae (Olivier) in central and northern California (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae; Homoptra: Coccidae). Pan-Pac. Ent. 62: 363-69.

Kennett, C. E. 1986. A survey of the parasitoid complex attacking black scale, Saissetia oleae (Olivier), in central and northern California (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea; Homoptera: Coccidae). Pan-Pac. Ent. 62: 363-69.

Kennett, C. E., J. A. McMurtry & J. W. Beardsley. 1993. Biological control in subtropical and tropical crops. In: Principles and Application of Biological Control. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. (in press).

Kirkpatrick, T. W. 1927. The common coffee mealybug in Kenya Colony. Bull. Dep. Agr. Kenya 18.

Kulshreshtha, J. P., P. K. Sanghi & V. Ravindranath. 1965. Microbial control of castor semilooper, Achaea janata. Indian J. Ent. 27: 353-54.

Lampson, L. J. & J. G. Morse. 1992. A survey of black scale, Saissetia oleae [Hom.: Coccidae] parasitoids [Hym.: Chalcidoidea] in southern California. Entomophaga 37: 373-90.

Lange, W. H., Jr. 1950. The biology of the Mariana coconut beetle, Brontispa mariana Spaeth, on Saipan, and the introduction of parasites from Malaya and Java for its control. Proc. Hawaii. Ent. Soc. 14: 143-62.

Legner, E. F. 1983a. Patterns of field diapause in the navel orangeworm (Lepidoptera: Phycitidae) and three imported parasites. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 76(3): 503-506.

Legner, E. F. 1983b. Influence of residual Nonpareil almond mummies on densities of the navel orangeworm and parasitization. J. Econ. Entomol. 76(3): 473-475.

Legner, E. F. & G. Gordh. 1992. Lower navel orangeworm (Lepidoptera: Phycitidae) population densities following establishment of Goniozus legneri (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae) in California. J. Econ. Ent. 85(6): (in press).

Legner, E. F. & A. Silveira-Guido. 1983. Establishment of Goniozus emigratus and Goniozus legneri [Hym: Bethylidae] on navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella [Lep: Phycitidae] in California and biological control potential. Entomophaga 28(2): 97-106.

 

1964   Legner, E. F. & E. R. Oatman.  1964.  Spiders on apple in Wisconsin and their abundance in a natural and two artificial environments. Canad. Entomol. 96(9):  1202-1207.

 

1983   Legner, E. F.  1983.  Influence of residual Nonpareil almond mummies on densities of the navel orangeworm and parasitization.  J. Econ. Entomol. 76(3):  473-475

 

1983  Legner, E. F.  1983.  Patterns of field diapause in the navel orangeworm (Lepidoptera: Phycitidae) and three imported parasites.  Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 76(3):  503-506.

 

1987  Legner, E. F. & R. D. Goeden.  1987.  Larval parasitism of Rhagoletis completa (Diptera: Tephritidae) on Juglans microcarpa  (Juglandaceae) in western Texas and southeastern New Mexico.  Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 89(4):  739-743.

 

1962   Legner, E. F. & E. R. Oatman.  1962.  Effects of Thuricide on the eye-spotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana.  J. Econ. Entomol. 5(5):  677-679.

 

1983   Legner, E. F. & A. Silveira-Guido.  1983.  Establishment of Goniozus emigratus and Goniozus legneri [Hym: Bethylidae] on navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella [Lep: Phycitidae] in California and biological control potential.  Entomophaga 28(2):  97-106.

 

1992  Legner, E. F. & G. Gordh.  1992.  Lower navel orangeworm (Lepidoptera: Phycitidae) population densities following establishment of Goniozus legneri (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae) in California.  J. Econ. Ent. 85(6):  2153-60.

 

1982a  Legner, E. F., G. Gordh, A. Silveira-Guido & M. E. Badgley.  1982.  New larvicidal wasp to attempt control of navel orangeworm. Almond Facts 47(3):  56-58.

 

1982b Legner, E. F., G. Gordh, A. Silveira-Guido & M. E. Badgley.  1982.  New wasp may help control navel orangeworm.  Calif. Agric. 38(5-6):  1, 4-5.

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